• Recent Advances in Molecular Imaging Biomarkers for Monitoring Cancer Immunotherapy Response
  • samad hassani,1,* Younes Soleimani,2 bahman bayramlo,3
    1. Department of Medical Imaging, School of Advanced Medical Technologies, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
    2. Department of Neuroscience and Addiction Studies, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran


  • Introduction: Cancer immunotherapy has transformed oncology, but monitoring treatment response remains challenging due to limitations in conventional imaging. Non-invasive molecular imaging probes targeting immune checkpoints, T-cell activity, and tumor microenvironment components offer real-time insights into immunotherapy efficacy. This review highlights the latest developments in imaging biomarkers for immunotherapy assessment.
  • Methods: A systematic literature search (2019–2025) was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, EMBASE, and ClinicalTrials.gov using keywords related to molecular imaging, immunotherapy, and cancer. Original research articles, clinical trials, and reviews were included, while conference abstracts and non-English studies were excluded.
  • Results: Key advances include PET tracers for PD-1/PD-L1 (e.g., 89Zr-atezolizumab, 18F-BMS-986192) and CD8+ T-cell tracking (e.g., 89Zr-Df-IAB22M2C). Novel probes for granzyme B, hypoxia, and fibroblast activation protein (FAP) enhance immune response assessment. Multimodal imaging (PET/MRI) and AI-driven radiomics improve predictive accuracy. Emerging technologies like photoacoustic imaging and theranostic probes show promise for clinical translation.
  • Conclusion: Molecular imaging biomarkers are advancing toward clinical implementation, enabling personalized immunotherapy monitoring. Standardization, cost-effectiveness, and regulatory approval remain challenges, but these technologies hold significant potential for optimizing treatment strategies.
  • Keywords: Molecular imaging, cancer immunotherapy, PET tracers, immune checkpoint inhibitors