Introduction: Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and despite significant advances in surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, major limitations such as off-target toxicity, multidrug resistance, and limited therapeutic efficacy persist. Therefore, there is a growing demand for more selective, multifunctional, and biocompatible treatment platforms.
Among the advanced therapeutic strategies, bioceramics and microrods have gained substantial attention due to their unique physicochemical properties and their potential to serve as smart platforms for targeted drug delivery, photothermal therapy, and immunomodulation. Bioceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, bioactive glass, and zirconia, are known for their excellent biocompatibility, bioactivity, ion release capability, and ability to integrate with surrounding tissues.
On the other hand, microrods, due to their high aspect ratio and tunable geometry, offer enhanced penetration into tumor tissues and controlled release of multiple therapeutic agents. When engineered with stimuli-responsive materials or functionalized surfaces, these systems enable site-specific drug delivery and even synergistic cancer treatments.
This review aims to comprehensively explore and critically analyze the current advancements in the use of bioceramics and microrods for cancer therapy based on a systematic assessment of over thirty high-impact publications.
Methods: To develop this review, a systematic literature search was conducted using major scientific databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. The search spanned the period from January 2015 to March 2025 and focused on studies investigating the use of bioceramics and/or microrods in cancer prevention, diagnosis, or treatment
Results: Over the past decade, research in the application of bioceramics and microrod-based systems in cancer therapy has witnessed significant evolution, transforming them from basic drug carriers into intelligent, multifunctional therapeutic platforms.
Beginning in 2015, studies on nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) demonstrated promising cytotoxic effects against osteosarcoma cells, mediated through mitochondrial apoptosis pathways, with minimal damage to healthy tissues. These early findings set the foundation for exploring calcium phosphate-based bioceramics as cancer-targeting agents.
By 2016, researchers began to exploit the acidic tumor microenvironment, utilizing pH-sensitive calcium phosphate nanoparticles to deliver chemotherapeutic agents such as doxorubicin. These systems improved drug release specificity while reducing systemic toxicity.
2017 brought the integration of doping strategies, where silicon- and iron-doped bioceramics enhanced oxidative stress within tumors, thereby inducing apoptosis and impeding angiogenesis. These modifications significantly enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of bioceramic particles.
In 2018, the transition to theranostic applications marked a key turning point. Magnetic bioactive glass nanoparticles doped with iron (Fe) enabled not only hyperthermia therapy but also provided MRI imaging capabilities, thus introducing a diagnostic-therapeutic hybrid approach.
The year 2019 saw the introduction of microrods, engineered for better tumor penetration and controlled release. Polymeric microrods loaded with chemotherapeutic and immunomodulatory agents (e.g., paclitaxel and anti-PD1) demonstrated synergistic effects by enhancing T-cell infiltration and disrupting immune evasion in colon and breast cancer models.
By 2020, multifunctional ceramic systems capable of co-delivering small interfering RNA (siRNA) and traditional drugs like cisplatin were developed, simultaneously targeting tumor growth and drug resistance mechanisms.
In 2021, bioceramic carriers began releasing immune checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-PD-L1, significantly boosting cytotoxic immune responses in solid tumors. Additionally, smart microrods responsive to near-infrared (NIR) light were engineered for on-demand drug release, enhancing control over therapeutic timing.
2022 brought advancements in imaging-guided therapy. Gadolinium-doped calcium phosphate nanoparticles enabled simultaneous MRI contrast and photothermal ablation, offering non-invasive monitoring of treatment progress alongside localized cytotoxicity.
In 2023, microrods functionalized with tumor-targeting antibodies (e.g., anti-HER2) achieved high specificity in delivery and dual-mode therapy through photothermal and chemotherapeutic mechanisms. These systems minimized off-target effects while improving therapeutic indices.
During 2024, 3D-printed bioceramic scaffolds embedded with chemotherapeutic drugs like mitoxantrone emerged as postoperative implants, reducing local recurrence and supporting tissue regeneration in resected sarcoma models.
Finally, in 2025, injectable hybrid systems integrating microrods, bioceramics, and natural polymers have been realized. One exemplary system involved hydroxyapatite microrods embedded in an alginate matrix, co-loaded with cyclophosphamide and interleukin-2 (IL-2). This formulation offered sustained local immunochemotherapy with robust tumor suppression and negligible systemic side effects.
In conclusion, the decade from 2015 to 2025 has witnessed a remarkable transformation in the role of bioceramics and microrods in oncology. From passive delivery vectors to dynamic, bioresponsive, and multifunctional platforms, these materials have shown efficacy in:
Selective drug release within tumor microenvironments
Enhancement of immune-mediated tumor destruction
Integration with diagnostic tools like MRI or thermal imaging
Reduction of recurrence post-resection via local implantable systems
Combination of chemotherapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy in single formulations
This progression underscores the immense clinical potential of bioceramic and microrod-based systems in personalized, localized, and multimodal cancer therapy. Ongoing developments in material science, nanotechnology, and immunoengineering are likely to further refine these platforms, making them key players in next-generation oncology treatments.
Conclusion: A unified review of current literature reveals a paradigm shift in cancer nanomedicine—moving from conventional cytotoxic platforms to biofunctional and environment-responsive systems. Bioceramics, beyond their osteoconductive roles, are being actively engineered to combat tumors through ion release, thermal induction, and immunomodulatory effects. Their physicochemical tunability allows for smart drug loading, targeted release, and combination therapies.
Microrods offer unique physical advantages—namely, a larger surface area for loading agents and improved interstitial diffusion within dense tumor matrices. Their design allows them to bypass some limitations of spherical nanoparticles, such as rapid clearance or poor tumor retention. Additionally, surface modification of microrods with targeting peptides, antibodies, or immune-stimulating ligands has expanded their potential into the field of immune-oncology.
Many studies highlighted here demonstrate potent synergistic effects when combining bioceramics and microrods with traditional therapies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or immunotherapy. However, clinical translation is still limited. Regulatory challenges, cost-effective fabrication, and understanding long-term biosafety remain primary hurdles. Nevertheless, these materials provide a solid foundation for the evolution of modular, programmable, and patient-specific platforms that could revolutionize cancer care.